Introduction to Propaganda as an Instrument of Statecraft
Propaganda has been an instrument of statecraft since antiquity, from the ancient empires of Rome and Athens, to Medieval and Renaissance Europe and the European age of exploration and colonization, to the American Revolution.
George Washington, in his Farewell Address, warned how foreign powers would attempt to exploit the new republic’s democratic system and the human fragilities of its elected leaders - a warning about about foreign propaganda as a weapon against American democracy.
Technology has driven propaganda’s evolution, but the target remains the same: the human mind. This class surveys the history, theory and techniques of propaganda, and discusses definitions of three types of propaganda, as well as disinformation, covert action, active measures, front organizations, agents of influence, psychological operations and related fields.
Required Readings
- [Textbook] Paul A. Smith, Jr., On Political War
(Washington: National Defense University Press, 1989), Chapter 1, “The Nature of Political War,” pp. 3-28; and Chapter 2, “Antiquity,” pp. 29-51. (Can't find a copy of this book? See the "Required Readings" page for a PDF copy.)
- [Textbook] Sun Tzu, The Art of War
, trans. Samuel B. Griffith (London: Oxford University Press, 1971). Read entire book, and pay particular attention to Chapter I, “Estimates;” Chapter 2, “Waging War;” Chapter III, “Offensive Strategy;” and Chapter XIII, “Employment of Secret Agents.”
- [Textbook] Jacques Ellul, Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes
(New York: Knopf, 1966; Random House, 1973), Introduction by Konrad Keller; Preface; Chapter 1, “The Characteristics of Propaganda”; Chapter 2, “The Conditions for the Effectiveness of Propaganda”; and Chapter 3, “The Necessity for Propaganda.”
- George Washington, “Farewell Address,” 1796. See the following:
George Washington's Farewell Address, 1796 (Yale Law School transcript)
George Washington's Farewell Address, 1796 (University of Virginia digitized image of original with transcript)
Several versions of Washington's Farewell Address exist. People have edited it over time to suit their own purposes. The Yale University version appears reliable. However, as a text it is not a primary source. The above University of Virginia version is the primary digital source: a faithful reproduction of the document in Washington's own handwriting, word-searchable, with a text transcript attached. This is a good point to remember about propaganda, and how easy it is to alter primary source material. Example: The version on the US State Department website was edited to remove Washington's warning about those who express "pretended patriotism" - a mystery as to why, but the State Department took down the link after this issue was pointed out. (Don't bother to click on the link; it's been dead for years.) The current State Department reference to Washington's Farewell Address gives a summary of its contents, but no longer provides the transcript.
For Further Reading
- Serge Chakotin, Rape of the Masses: The Psychology of Totalitarian Political Propaganda
(New York: Fortean Society, 1940), Chapter 5, “Political Propaganda of the Past,” pp. 137-167.
- Angelo M. Codevilla, “Political Warfare,” in Frank Barnett and Carnes Lord, eds., Political Warfare and Psychological Operations: Rethinking The US Approach
(Washington: National Defense University Press, 1989), pp. 77-109, with comments by Donald F. B. Jameson and Abram N. Shulsky.
- Nicholas J. Cull, David Cuthbert and David Welch, Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present
(ABC-CLIO, 2003).
- Paul M. A. Linebarger, Psychological Warfare (WWII Era Reprint)
(Washington: Infantry Journal Press, 1948), Chapter 7, “Propaganda Analysis,” pp. 110-131.
- Gustave Le Bon, The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind
(London: Ernest Benn Ltd., 1896; various reprints), esp. Book II, Chapter III. Discusses the phenomenon of crowds, their psychology, morality, ideas, reasoning power, and convictions. Book II, Chapter III explores the leaders of crowds and their means of persuasion.
- Philip M. Taylor, Munitions of the Mind: A History of Propaganda
(Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1995, 2003). A very good historical survey of propaganda, from Ancient Greece to the present. It gives good treatment to the use of propaganda in medieval and renaissance times, traces technological developments such as gunpowder, printing, and the telecommunications and information revolutions; discusses propaganda in revolutionary warfare and total warfare. A textbook in the Political Warfare: Past, Present and Future course.
